Pathological pain is regulated by a balance between pro-algesic and analgesic mechanisms. Interactions between opioid peptide-producing immune cells and peripheral sensory neurons expressing opioid receptors represent a powerful intrinsic pain control in animal models and in humans. Therefore, treatments based on general suppression of immune responses have been mostly unsuccessful. It is highly desirable to develop strategies that specifically promote neuro-immune communication mediated by opioids. Promising examples include vaccination-based recruitment of opioid-containing leukocytes to painful tissue and the local reprogramming of pro-algesic immune cells into analgesic cells producing and secreting high amounts of opioid peptides. Such approaches have the potential to inhibit pain at its origin and be devoid of central and systemic side effects of classical analgesics. In support of these concepts, in this article, we describe the functioning of peripheral opioid receptors, migration of opioid-producing immune cells to inflamed tissue, opioid peptide release, and the consequent pain relief. Conclusively, we provide clinical evidence and discuss therapeutic opportunities and challenges associated with immune cell-mediated peripheral opioid analgesia.Monocytes are circulating myeloid immune precursor cells that are generated in the bone marrow. Mature monocytes are released into the circulation and, in case of need, recruited to peripheral sites of inflammation to differentiate into monocyte-derived effector cells. In absence of overt inflammation, monocytes also extravasate into selected tissues, where they complement tissue-resident macrophage compartments. Adjustment of these homeostatic monocyte infiltrates to local environment is critical to maintain health, as best established for the intestine. Defined gene expression changes that differ between gut segments presumably help strike the fine balance between the crucial function of these monocyte-derived macrophages as tissue rheostats and their detrimental hyperactivation. Environmental factors that dictate local monocyte differentiation remain incompletely understood. Definition of the latter could aid our general understanding of in vivo monocyte functions and their relation to inflammatory disorders. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of monocyte subsets, their differentiation into tissue macrophages, and selected contributions of monocyte-derived cells to steady-state physiology. Moreover, we will discuss emerging evidence for an intriguing bifurcation of monocyte development in the bone marrow and potential functional implications. Emphasis will be given to points of controversies, but we will largely focus on the healthy organism. For a discussion of monocyte and macrophage contributions to inflammatory conditions, we refer the reader to other dedicated reviews.The nature of the interaction of bile salt micelles with exogenous surfactants used in formulations and the consequent impact on drug solubilisation is not well understood. It is often assumed that addition of any surfactant will lead to an enhanced solubility of drug, which is often true in water alone. In this study we have investigated the interaction of a range of typical non-ionic formulation surfactants (Kolliphor EL, Vitamin E TPGS and a range of Pluronics) with bile salt + phospholipid (BS + PL) mixed micelles using small angle X-ray scattering. The solubility of the model poorly water-soluble drug fenofibrate was determined in the mixed micelles and compared to solubility in the presence of increasing exogenous surfactant alone. It was found that while Pluronic F68 did not appear to interact with bile salt micelles and did not impact on the solubility of the drug in the BS + PL micellar system, addition of hydrophobic surfactants led to a synergistic boost in drug solubility, while addition of more hydrophilic surfactants led to a net reduction in drug solubility. With the exception of Pluronic F68, both hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfactants swelled the bile salt mixed micelles leading to the conclusion that although the micelle size was increased, the solubilising environment was less favourable than in bile salt micelles alone. The results serve as a warning to formulators using these surfactants as solubilising agents to consider their likely interactions with endogenous colloidal structures. The aim of this study was to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices amongst public health undergraduates in relation to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in China. A cross-sectional survey was conducted amongst all final-year public health undergraduates from 18 universities across China. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on AMR-related knowledge, attitudes and practices, whilst multivariable linear and logistic regressions were employed to detect associations among these three aspects. A total of 1115 participants were included in this study. The mean ± standard deviation AMR knowledge score was 7.68 ± 2.56. Moreover, 75.2% of students had performed incorrect antimicrobial practice. Studying in a key university [slope = 1.49, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.71-2.27], being male (slope = 0.36, 95% CI 0.02-0.70), having clinical experience (slope = 1.71, 95% CI 1.13-2.30) and having an affirmative attitude towards AMR were positively associated with knowledge score. Knowledge score was also positively associated with AMR practice (odds ratio = 1.07, 95% CI 1.00-1.13). A knowledge gap in relation to AMR was determined among Chinese public health students. SOP1812 molecular weight This gap is associated with attitudes towards AMR and in turn influences antimicrobial use. It is clear that additional measures are needed in the curriculum, including additional AMR-specific clinical practices.A knowledge gap in relation to AMR was determined among Chinese public health students. This gap is associated with attitudes towards AMR and in turn influences antimicrobial use. It is clear that additional measures are needed in the curriculum, including additional AMR-specific clinical practices.