To prevent ongoing transmission, targeting of groups, places, and activities with complementary interventions should consider setting-specific human behaviors in addition to epidemiological and entomological data.Our findings highlight the potential of outdoor exposure to hamper malaria control as people spend a remarkable amount of time outdoors without protection from mosquitoes. To prevent ongoing transmission, targeting of groups, places, and activities with complementary interventions should consider setting-specific human behaviors in addition to epidemiological and entomological data. Insecticide-based vector control is responsible for reducing malaria mortality and morbidity. Its success depends on a better knowledge of the vector, its distribution, and resistance status to the insecticides used. In this paper, we assessed Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (A gambiae s.l.) population resistance to pyrethroids in different ecological settings. The World Health Organization standard bioassay test was used to assess F0A gambiae s.l. susceptibility to pyrethroids. Biochemical Synergist assays were conducted with piperonyl butoxide (PBO), S,S,S-tributyl phosphotritioate, and diethyl maleate. L1014F, L1014S, and N1575Y knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations were investigated using TaqMan genotyping. Anopheles gambiae sensu lato was composed of Anopheles arabienisis, Anopheles coluzzii, and A gambiae in all study sites. Anopheles gambiae sensu lato showed a strong phenotypic resistance to deltamethrin and permethrin in all sites (13% to 41% mortality). In many sites, pre-exposure to synergists partially improved the mortality rate suggesting the presence of detoxifying enzymes. The 3 kdr (L1014F, L1014S, and N1575Y) mutations were found, with a predominance of L1014F, in all species. Multiple resistance mechanisms to pyrethroids were observed in A gambiae s.l. in Mali. The PBO provided a better partial restoration of susceptibility to pyrethroids, suggesting that the efficacy of long-lasting insecticidal nets may be improved with PBO.Multiple resistance mechanisms to pyrethroids were observed in A gambiae s.l. in Mali. Peptide17 The PBO provided a better partial restoration of susceptibility to pyrethroids, suggesting that the efficacy of long-lasting insecticidal nets may be improved with PBO. Despite substantial reductions in malaria burden and improvement in case management, malaria remains a major public health challenge in the Asia-Pacific region. Residual malaria transmission (RMT) is the fraction of total transmission that persists after achievement of full operational coverage with effective insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs)/long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and/or indoor residual spray interventions. There is a critical need to standardize and share best practices for entomological, anthropological, and product development investigative protocols to meet the challenges of RMT and elimination goals. A systematic review was conducted to describe when and where RMT is occurring, while specifically targeting ownership and usage of ITN/LLINs, indoor residual spray application, insecticide susceptibility of vectors, and human and vector biting behavior, with a focus on nighttime activities. Sixty-six publications from 1995 to present met the inclusion criteria for closer review. Assoc setting, analytical approaches to measure key human-vector interactions, and seasonal location-specific agricultural or forest use calendars, and establishing the collection of longitudinal human and vector data close in time and location.Residual malaria transmission is the actual maintained inoculation of Plasmodium, in spite of a well-designed and implemented vector control programs, and is of great concern for malaria elimination. Residual malaria transmission occurs under several possible circumstances, among which the presence of exophilic vector species, such as Anopheles dirus, or indoor- and outdoor-biting vectors, such as Anopheles nili, or specific behavior, such as feeding on humans indoors, then resting or leaving the house the same night (such as Anopheles moucheti) or also changes in behavior induced by insecticides applied inside houses, such as the well-known deterrent effect of permethrin-treated nets or the irritant effect of DDT. The use of insecticides may change the composition of local Anopheles populations, such as A. arabiensis taking up the place of A. gambiae in Senegal, A. aquasalis replacing A. darlingi in Guyana, or A. harrisoni superseding A. minimus in Vietnam. The change in behavior, such as biting activity earlier than usually reported-for example, Anopheles funestus after a large-scale distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets-or insecticide resistance, in particular the current spread of pyrethroid resistance, could hamper the efficacy of classic pyrethroid-treated long-lasting insecticidal nets and maintained transmission. These issues must be well documented in every situation to elaborate, implement, monitor, and evaluate tailored vector control programs, keeping in mind that they must be conceived as integrated programs with several well and appropriately coordinated approaches, combining entomological but also parasitological, clinical, and social methods and analyses. A successful integrated vector control program must then be designed to reduce transmission and incidence rates of malaria morbidity and overall mortality.The transmission of Plasmodium parasites in residual foci is currently a major roadblock for malaria elimination. Human activities and behavior, along with outdoor biting mosquitoes with opportunistic feeding preferences are the main causes of the inefficacy of the main vector control interventions, long lasting insecticide-impregnated nets and insecticide residual spraying. Several strategies to abate or repel outdoor biting mosquito vectors are currently being researched, but the impact of insecticide resistance on the efficacy of these and current indoor-applied insecticides requires further assessment. Understanding the human, ecological and vector factors, determining transmission in residual foci is necessary for the design and implementation of novel control strategies. Vector control alone is insufficient without adequate epidemiological surveillance and prompt treatment of malaria cases, the participation of endemic communities in prevention and control is required. In addition, malaria control programs should optimize their structure and organization, and their coordination with other government sectors.